Finite Element Analysis of Structures MSc in CIVIL ENGINEERING Essay

Finite Element Analysis of Structures MSc in CIVIL ENGINEERING - Essay Example Upon assessment of the bracelet, the assessment requires a report on the design as well as making recommendations and preferences to the design. The project requires skills of structural mechanics and dynamics to assess the functional capacity of the bracket. Through real life analysis, the viability of the design shall be developed by incorporating the availability of material as well as the safety of the design. The problem that is presented in this report is a suspicion that a given design of a ceiling bracket fails to meet the user requirements and may be unfit. There is also suspicion that the production of the bracket may not be a viable idea, economically. Although the functional requirements of the bracket may have been included in the design of the bracket, its usability, flaws in the design as well as the structural elements of the production process may hinder applicability and reliability. The problem that the proposed bracket is solving is supporting a maximum vertical load of six Kilo Newton and a side load of two Kilo Newton. The investigation of the viability of the bracket can be derived from the definition of an engineer. An engineer is a professional who has acquired the academic qualifications in the engineering field and is capable of practicing the concept. This involves, identification of a problem that faces a community or individuals, assessment of the problem, proposing of possible solutions to the problem and production of the best-suited solution while ensuring that the functional requirements, which define the problem, are met. The economic and aesthetic functions of the developed solution have to be also integrated in the solution. The investigation thus is done to establish the viability of the bracelet design, in ensuring that it meets the functional requirement of supporting the weight of various elements from the ceiling. Under the investigation, it is also worth noting

Psych 1010 out of class activity 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Psych 1010 out of class activity 5 - Essay Example Sleep Diary: Night 2. Tuesday. 1. Total time spent sleeping 7.25 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night None 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   None 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days.*   None 5. Overall Sleep Rating ( 1 – 7 ) 3 – I feel rested. Sleep Diary: Night 3. Wednesday. 1. Total time spent sleeping 5.25 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night Three 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   Two 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days.*   None 5. Overall Sleep Rating ( 1 – 7 ) 6 = I feel groggy. Sleep Diary: Night 4. Thursday. 1. Total time spent sleeping 3.75 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night Twice 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   Two 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days. One 5. Overall Sleep Rating ( 1 – 7 ) 7 = I feel very tired a nd want to go back to bed Sleep Diary: Night 5. Friday. 1. Total time spent sleeping 6.75 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night Once 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   None 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days.*   None 5. ... Sleep Diary: Night 7. Sunday 1. Total time spent sleeping 8.25 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night Once 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   One 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days.*   None 5. Overall Sleep Rating ( 1 – 7 ) 3 = I feel rested   MEAN/AVERAGE SCORE 1. Total time spent sleeping 6.54 hours 2. Number of times you woke up during the night 1.14 times 3. Number of separate dreams you can recall at least partially.   1.29 dreams 4. Number of dreams related to experiences of the recent days. 0.29 dreams 5. Overall Sleep Rating ( 1 – 7 ) 4.57 4 = I feel neither refreshed nor tired   5 = I feel somewhat sleepy   HANDOUT 8.2 In general, what do you dream about? How do you feel about your dreams, in general? Usually the dreams I have are pretty abstract but I have noticed that most of my dreams comprise of natural elements such as water or wind and sometimes animals such as cats and s nakes. Describe some of the dreams you had over this period. Were they recurring dreams or did they happen only once? Why did this dream stand out from others? I don’t recall having any recurring dreams during this period however I did dream of a very long snake with red eyes that appeared to be hissing at something hidden in the shadows. Also I do recall dreaming of a huge mansion on top of a hill which was lavishly decorated. I remember being trapped inside the mansion as water starts flooding in from all sides; anxious to find a way out I run out to the back exit only to find I was on the edge of a cliff. I remember jumping from the edge; such had been my fear of drowning in the growing amount of water. This was when I woke up (Thursday, Night 4). This dream

Global Standardisation Or International Adaptation

Global Standardisation Or International Adaptation In the International Marketing field, the debate of standardisation as against adaptation has been significantly researched in the past and is still a highly debatable issue. This debate commenced in 1961 as indicated by Vignali and Vrontis, (1999). Initially this debate mainly focussed on international standardisation with regards to advertising. However, recently, this debate has been extended from just advertising to promotions mix and now to all the seven Ps of the marketing mix (Kanso, A., et.al, 2004). A brief review of literature also indentifies adaptation and standardisation as the two main tactics by international marketers for business longevity (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009). In the last four decades, according to Ryans (2003), there has been extensive academic research done in the field of international marketing standardisation. However in the past, economic development was concentrated on surplus of exports as compared to imports and hence, firms mainly focused on merely minimising costs to increase their exports. However, in this increasingly competitive and changing international market, firms have realised that cost minimisation is not just enough for gaining a competitive advantage. Nowadays, firms have become more consumers oriented and have developed techniques to satisfy and understand customer preferences and needs. (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009) The objective of this essay is to understand the issue of whether a business should adopt an international marketing mix strategy which is standardized globally or adapted internationally as per individual markets. In the quest to expand their presence worldwide, acquire higher market share, increase profitability and overcome market saturation issues, internationally oriented firms continually seek for new growth opportunities (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009). According to Vrontis (2006) whenever a firm decides to market their products internationally the fundamental decision for marketers is whether to use a global marketing strategy with a standardized marketing mix or whether to adjust and adapt the elements of the marketing mix according to the unique local target market. However, Vrontis (2006) suggests that according to the literature companies make contingency choices, which relate to key determinants in each circumstance (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009, p.3). The primary distinction between global standardisation or global marketing and international adaption in international marketing management is orientation. Standardisation forms the basis of global marketing management which views the world a s a single market where as on the other hand international marketing management is guided by an adapted marketing strategy (Cateora Graham, 1999). The basis of standardization in marketing as argued by Chung, 2007, is the comparison of a firms domestic and international marketing operations. In standardization, firms standardize all their marketing mix components. Chung further suggested that the extent to which the firms should standardize their marketing functions should be assessed. He has also highlighted in his research paper, the interaction method which helps to identify the influencing factors in selecting the standardization strategy (Ryans, J., et al., 2003). Buzzell (1995) have stated that the dissimilarities amongst countries have led international firms to redesign their marketing planning according the country in which it is operating. However, he further said that this situation is changed and he recognized potential gains for firms who adopt standardization of marketing practices. Chung (2007) further argued that culture has a major effect on just the promotional element of the marketing mix. This suggests that firms should use an adapted promotional approach when entering a different cultural environment (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009, p.3) and culture has a very minimal effect on product, price and place. Backhaus and Van, J., (2007) claims that standardisation is a trade off between the possible economic benefits of a standardised approach, as well as the performance gains attained by adapting to the needs of local markets. Marketers who support global standardisation tactics argue that consumers live in a globalized world in which nation-states are not the major determinants of marketing activities; and in which consumer tastes and cultures are homogenised and satisfied through the provision of standardised global products created by global corporations (Vrontis, D., et al, 2009; Dicken, P., 1998). Levitt, 1983 said that multinational firms have moved from customising items to offering globally standardised products which are better, more reliable and lower in price. According to Levitt, multinational firms who concentrate on particular consumer preferences become puzzled and are unable to see the big picture. Levitt strongly recommends that standardisation will bring success in the long term by concentrating on what majority wants (Levitt, T., 1983). The main reasons as suggested by Papavassilou and Stathakopoulos (1997) that add values to Levitts thesis is because it allows international firms to maintain brand identity globally and helps firms to maintain a consistent global image. It also reduces the confusion with regards to perceptions of travelling customers or buyers allowing firms to adopt a single tactical approach and enables them to reduce production costs by taking advantage of economies of scales in production. Levitts, 1983 suggests that standardisation on a tactical level is very important for global markets. He further argues that global firms which operate on standardised functions, at lower cost, can consider the entire world to be a single market and can sell product in the same manner globally. Keegan Green, (2000) supports Levitt by stating that standardised global marketing is similar to mass marketing in one country involving similar marketing mix strategies. This approach of global standardisation of the marketing mix is opposed by the researchers who support international adaptation approach. According to Vrontis et al, 2009, Supporters of adaptation declare that the assumptions underlining global standardisation philosophy are contradicted by the facts. Jain, (1989, p. 71) has stated that, Standardisation is at best difficult and, at worst, impractical (Jain, S., 1989, p. 71). According to Ruigrok and Tulder (1995), Globalisation seems to be as much of an overstatement as it is an ideology. Ruigrok and Tulder (1995) further stated that it is not possible to effectively market by using standardized marketing mix methods everywhere. Helming (1982) and Youovich (1982) challenged the basic assumption of the standardisation approach and argues that similar buying motives of international consumers may, at best, be simplistic and at worst, dangerous(Vrontis, D., et. al, 2009, p.3). Hence, supporters of international adaptation argue that minor or major adaptations in the elements of the marketing mix are vital and necessary in meeting the target market demands. According to them, different international markets are subject to different micro and macro-environmental considerations and hence standardisation of the marketing mix is not feasible. The marketing mix consists of seven components namely product, price, place, people, process, positioning and promotion. Any possibility of a global marketing mix suggests that the same configuration of the seven Ps could be applicable internationally, regardless of cultural and conditional differences. Some businesses do focus on global standardization; however, current data suggests the need for local adaptation. This may be achieved by carefully analyzing the regional market segmentation (Semenik, R., et.al, 1995). Hassan, Craft and Kortam (2003) has distinguished three important market segmentations namely, those group of countries which have a similar product demand, different countries in different region which already have the same product and Universal segment which are present in most countries. The other drivers considered by multinational companies with respect to segmentation and operating in the international markets can be divided into macro factors such as political, e conomic, technological, geographic, etc. and micro factors which include consumer tastes, preferences, lifestyles, attitudes, etc. Lipman (1988) has supported international adaptation strategy because in his view, the global-marketing theory itself is bankrupt and bunk (Vrontis, D., et.al, 2009, p.3). The standardization concept which once rushed executives to reconfigure their marketing strategies are now feeling duped. The differences in the customer characteristics, climatic conditions, culture, consumer behaviour and other factors are in the ascendency and having a single global marketing strategy is a vague concept. On the other hand, the huge costs involved in adaptation and the benefits of standardisation, may not allow adaptation to be used extensively (Vrontis, D., 2005). Adaptation and Standardisation are two extreme schools of thought. The view of adopting any one of these two strategies is rejected by researchers, authors and marketers who have found it difficult to apply these strategies in practice. For them, global standardisation and international adaptation is not a proposition, but a matter of degree. Diversity amongst countries does not permit global standardisation. They have stressed on the necessity of simultaneously using both international adaptation and global standardisation wherever necessary. (Sorenson, R., et.al, 1975; Prahalad, C., et.al, 1986; Boddewyn, J., et al., 1986; Douglas, S., et.al, 1987; Kim, W., et.al, 1987; Choi, K., et.al, 1996; Terpstra, V., et.al, 1997; Vanaij, W., 1997; Hennessey, J., 2001; Vrontis, D., 2003; Vrontis, D., et.al, 2005). The best example of an effective international marketing firm which adopts an integrated approach of standardisation and adaptation is McDonalds. The firm has expanded internationally by branding globally and adapting to the local tastes. (Vignali, C., 2001). Successful multinational firms should incorporate elements of both approaches. Hence, incorporating both concepts means that global firms must try to standardise as many elements of the marketing mix as possible and also follow necessary adaptation in order to satisfy market needs. To conclude, the goals of market complexity and cost reduction may influence firms to consider standardisation where as customer orientation may lead them towards adaptation but by incorporating both will help firms gain a competitive advantage and above average returns. References: Backhaus, K. and Van, J., (2007), Consumer perceptions of advertising standardisation: a cross-country study of different advertising categories, International Management Review, Vol. 3 No. 4, p. 37. Boddewyn, J., Soehl, R., and Picard, J., (1986), Standardisation in international marketing: is Ted Levitt in fact right?, Business Horizons, Vol. 29, pp. 69-75. Buzzell, R., Quelch, J., and Bartlett, C., (1995), Global Marketing Management, Cases and Readings, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley, New York, NY. Choi, K., and Jarboe, T., (1996), Mass customization in power plant design and construction, Power Engineering, Vol. 100, No. 1, pp. 33-6. Chung, H., (2007), International marketing standardisation strategies analysis:a cross-national investigation, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 145-67. Dicken, P., (1998), Global Shift, Transforming the World Economy, 3rd ed., Paul Chapman, London. Douglas, S., and Wind, Y., (1987), The myth of globalization, Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol. 22, pp. 19-29. Hassan, S.S., Craft, S. and Kortam, W. (2003), Understanding the new bases for global market segmentation, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 446-62. Helming, A. (1982), Pitfalls lie waiting for unwary marketers, Advertising Age, n.d., p. M-8. Hennessey, J., (2001), Global Marketing Strategies, 5th ed., Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Jain, S.C. (1989), Standardisation of international marketing strategy: some research hypotheses, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 53, pp. 70-9. Kanso, A., and Kitchen, P., (2004), Marketing consumer services internationally: localisation and standardisation revisited, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 87-94. Keegan, W., and Green, M., (2000), Global Marketing, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Kim, W., and Mauborgne, R., (1987), Cross-cultural strategies, The Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 7, pp. 31-40. Levitt, T., (1983), The globalization of markets, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 61, pp. 92-102. Lipman, J., (1988), Marketers turn sour on global sales pitch Harvard guru makes, Wall Street Journal, 12 May, p. 17. Papavassiliou, N., and Stathakopoulos, V., (1997), Standardisation versus adaptation of international advertising strategies: towards a framework, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 No. 7, pp. 504-27. Prahalad, C., and Doz, Y., (1986), The Multinational Mission: Balancing Local Demands and Global Vision, the Free Press, New York, NY. Ruigrok, W., and van Tulder, R., (1995), The Logic of International Restructuring, Routledge, London. Ryans, J., Griffth, D., and White, D., (2003), Standardization/adaptation of international strategy: necessary conditions for the advancement of knowledge, International Marketing Review, Vol. 20 No. 6, pp. 588-603. Semenik, R., and Bamossy, G., (1995), Principles of Marketing, a Global Perspective South Western, Cincinnati, USA. Sorenson, R., and Wiechmann, U., (1975), How multinationals view marketing standardisation, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 53, pp. 38-48. Terpstra, V., and Sarathy, R., (1997), International Marketing, 7th ed., Dryden Press, Fort Worth, TX. Vanraij, W., (1997), Globalisation of marketing communication?, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 18, No, 2/3, pp. 259-70. Vignali, C., 2001, McDonalds: think global, act local the marketing mix, British Food Journal, Vol. 103, No. 2, p. 97. Vignali, C., and Vrontis, D., (1999), An International Marketing Reader, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester. Vrontis, D., (2003), Integrating adaptation and standardisation in international marketing, the AdaptStand modelling process, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 19, No. 3/4, pp. 283-305. Vrontis, D., (2005), The creation of the AdaptStand process in international marketing, Journal of Innovative Marketing, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 7-21. Vrontis, D., and Papasolomou, I., (2005), The use of entry methods in identifying multinational companies AdaptStand behaviour in foreign markets, Review of Business, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 13-20. Vrontis, D., Thrassou, A., and Lamprianou, I., (2009), International marketing adaptation versus standardization of multinational companies, Journal of International Marketing Review, Vol. 20, No. 4/5, pp. 477-500. Vrontis, D., Thrassou, A., and Vignali, C., (2006), The country-of-origin effect, on the purchase intention of apparel opportunities and threats for small firms, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Vol. 3, Nos 3/4, pp. 459-76. Youovich, B., (1982), Maintain a balance of planning, Advertising Age, n.d., p. M-7.

Faust: Book Review :: essays research papers

Faust: Book Review   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This novel written originally by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and translated by Walter Kaufmann. There are 201 pages in this novel.. This book is a poem divided into two parts and has many adventures in it. The point of view is from the writer of the play, 3rd person narration. The theme of this novel is Don't always take the easy way out of things because in the end you will pay for them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This novel starts off with Mephisto the Devil asking God to be able to tempt a scholar named Faust. Mephisto talks with angels and God. Mephisto tells God that Faust is loyal to him but will no be for long. Mephisto is going to take Faust from him. Faust is sitting in his study most of the poem. He looks up information to gain more knowledge. When he is looking one day through his study he notices a book that he has never seen before. Faust takes it out and examines it and finds out it is a book of spells, With this spell book he calls on Mephisto. Faust finds out that Mephisto never wants to say his name just describe his great power and plans that he can give Faust. Mephisto fails the first time to get Faust to give in. He comes back the next day and tries again but doesn't gain his  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   hand in this deed. After Faust calls on Mephisto they make a deal. Mephisto would serve Faust in this life and when Faust would die he would come to hell and help Mephisto in return for giving Faust all this power. Faust agrees and this is the start of the deed. Mephisto would do anything in his power for Faust. These things that Mephisto did was to try to get Lady Gretchen (that Faust liked dearly) to notice him. Mephisto would give Gretchen diamonds and other assortment of jewelry to tempt her. This did not work. Over the years of Mephisto doing all these deeds for Faust, He gained a lot of knowledge. Faust started to get real old and very ill. He started to see ghosts and other kinds of unnatural things in front of his eyes that he never saw before. Over more time Faust becomes blind and can no longer do anything. When Faust is dying Mephisto gets ready to take him to hell to serve him in eternity. When Faust dies God comes into the picture again. He gets angels to distract Mephisto and take Faust into Heaven. God forgives Faust for all he has done.

The Silver Linings Playbook Chapter 3

Orange Fire Enters My Skull Yes, I really do believe in silver linings, mostly because I've been seeing them almost every day when I emerge from the basement, push my head and arms through a trash bag – so my torso will be wrapped in plastic and I will sweat more – and then go running. I always try to coordinate the ten-mile running portion of my ten-hour exercise routine with sunset, so I can finish by running west past the playing fields of Knight's Park, where, as a kid, I played baseball and soccer. As I run through the park, I look up and see what the day has to offer in the way of divination. If clouds are blocking the sun, there will always be a silver lining that reminds me to keep on trying, because I know that while things might seem dark now, my wife is coming back to me soon. Seeing the light outline those fluffy puffs of white and gray is electrifying. (And you can even re-create the effect by holding your hand a few inches away from a naked lightbulb and tracing your handprint with your eyes until you go temporarily blind.) It hurts to look at the clouds, but it also helps, like most things that cause pain. So I need to run, and as my lungs burn and my back rebels with that stabbing knife feeling and my leg muscles harden and the half inch of loose skin around my waist jiggles, I feel as though my penance for the day is being done and that maybe God will be pleased enough to lend me some help, which I think is why He has been showing me interesting clouds for the past week. Since my wife asked for some time apart, I've lost more than fifty pounds, and my mother says that soon I'll be at the weight I was when I played varsity soccer in high school, which is also the weight I was when I met Nikki, and I'm thinking maybe she was upset by the weight I gained during the five years we were married. Won't she be surprised to see me looking so muscular when apart time is over! If there are no clouds at sunset – which happened yesterday – when I look up toward the sky, orange fire enters my skull, blinds me, and that's almost as good, because it burns too and makes everything look divine. When I run, I always pretend I am running toward Nikki, and it makes me feel like I am decreasing the amount of time I have to wait until I see her again.

Domestication History of Squashes (Cucurbita spp)

Domestication History of Squashes (Cucurbita spp) Squash (genus Cucurbita), including squashes, pumpkins, and gourds, is one of the earliest and most important of plants domesticated in the Americas, along with maize and common bean. The genus includes 12-14 species, at least five of which were domesticated independently, long before European contact in South America, Mesoamerica, and Eastern North America. Five Main Species The designation cal BP means, roughly, calendar years ago before the present. Data in this table has been assembled from a variety of available sources, listed in the bibliography for this article. Name Common Name Location Date Progenitor C. pepo spp pepo pumpkins, zucchini Mesoamerica 10,000 cal BP C. pepo. spp fraterna C. moschata butternut squash Mesoamerica or northern South America 10,000 cal BP C. pepo spp fraterna C. pepo spp. ovifera summer squashes, acorns Eastern North America 5000 cal BP C. pepo spp ozarkana C. argyrosperma silver-seeded gourd, green-striped cushaw Mesoamerica 5000 cal BP C. argyrosperma spp sororia C. ficifolia fig-leafed gourd Mesoamerica or Andean South America 5000 cal BP unknown C. maxima buttercup, banana, Lakota, Hubbard, Harrahdale pumpkins South America 4000 cal BP C. maxima spp adreana Why Would Anybody Domesticate Gourds? Wild forms of squashes are harshly bitter to humans and other extant mammals, but there is evidence that they were harmless to mastodons, the extinct form of elephant. Wild squashes carry cucurbitacins, which can be toxic when eaten by smaller bodied mammals, including humans. Large-bodied mammals would need to ingest a huge amount to have an equivalent dose (75-230 whole fruits at once). Interestingly, when the megafauna died off at the end of the last Ice Age, wild Cucurbita declined. The last mammoths in the Americas died off about 10,000 years ago, around the same time squashes were domesticated. See Kistler et al. for a discussion. Archaeological understanding of squash domestication process  has undergone a considerable rethinking: most domestication processes have been found to have taken centuries if not millennia to complete. In comparison, squash domestication was fairly abrupt. Domestication was likely in part the result of human selection for different traits related to edibility, as well as seed size and rind thickness. It has also been suggested that domestication may have been directed by the practicality of dried gourds as containers or fishing weights. Bees and Gourds Evidence suggests that cucurbit ecology is tightly bound up with one of its pollinators, several varieties of an American stingless bee known as Peponapis or the gourd bee. Ecological evidence (Giannini et al.) identified a co-occurrence of specific types of cucurbit with specifics type of Peponapis  in three distinct geographic clusters. Cluster A is in the Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahan deserts (including P. pruinosa); B in the moist forests of the Yucatan peninsula and C in the Sinaloa dry forests. Peponapis bees may well be crucial to understanding the spread of domesticated squash in the Americas, because bees apparently followed the human movement of cultivated squashes into new territories. Lopez-Uribe et al. (2016) studied and identified molecular markers of the bee P. pruinosa in bee populations throughout North America. P. pruinosa today prefers the wild host C. foetidissima, but when that is not available, it relies on domesticated host plants, C. pepo, C. moschata and C. maxima, for pollen. The distribution of these markers suggests that modern squash bee populations are the result of a massive range expansion from out of Mesoamerica into the temperate regions of North America. Their findings suggest that the bee colonized eastern NA after C. pepo was domesticated there, the first and only known case of a pollinators range expanding with the spread of a domesticated plant. South America Microbotanical remains from squash plants such as starch grains and phytoliths, as well as macro-botanical remains such as seeds, pedicles, and rinds, have been found representing C. moschata squash and bottle gourd in numerous sites throughout northern South American and Panama by 10,200-7600 cal BP, underlining their probable South American origins earlier than that. Phytoliths large enough to represent domesticated squash have been found at sites in Ecuador 10,000-7,000 years BP and the Colombian Amazon (9300-8000 BP). Squash seeds of Cucurbita moschata have been recovered from sites in the Nanchoc valley on the lower western slopes of Peru, as were early cotton, peanut, and quinoa. Two squash seeds from the floors of houses were direct-dated, one 10,403–10,163 cal BP and one 8535-8342 cal BP. In the Zaà ±a valley of Peru, C. moschata rinds dated to 10,402-10,253 cal BP, alongside early evidence of cotton, manioc and coca. C. ficifolia was discovered in southern coastal Peru at Paloma, dated between 5900-5740 cal BP; other squash evidence that has not been identified to species include Chilca 1, in southern coastal Peru (5400 cal BP and Los Ajos in southeastern Uruguay, 4800-4540 cal BP. Mesoamerican Squashes The earliest archaeological evidence for C. pepo squash in Mesoamerica comes from excavations carried out during the 1950s and 1960s in five caves in Mexico: Guil Naquitz in Oaxaca state, Coxcatln and San Marco caves in Puebla and Romero’s and Valenzuela’s caves in Tamaulipas. Pepo squash seeds, fruit rind fragments, and stems have been radiocarbon dated to 10,000 years BP, including both direct dating of the seeds and indirect dating of the site levels in which they were found. This analysis allowed also to trace the dispersion of the plant between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago from south to north, specifically, from Oaxaca and southwestern Mexico toward Northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. Xihuatoxtla rockshelter, in tropical Guerrero state, contained phytoliths of what may be C. argyrosperma, in association with radiocarbon dated levels of 7920/- 40 RCYBP, indicating that domesticated squash was available between 8990-8610 cal BP. Eastern North America In the United States, early evidence of initial domestication of Pepo squash comes from different sites from the central midwest and the east from Florida to Maine. This was a subspecies of Cucurbita pepo called Cucurbita pepo ovifera and its wild ancestor, the inedible Ozark gourd, is still present in the area. This plant formed part of the dietary complex known as the Eastern North American Neolithic, which also included chenopodium and sunflower. The earliest use of squash is from the Koster site  in Illinois, ca. 8000 years BP; the earliest domesticated squash in the midwest comes from Phillips Spring, Missouri, about 5,000 years ago.   Sources Dillehay TD, Rossen J, Andres TC, and Williams DE. 2007. Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru. Science 316:1890-1893.Fuller DQ, Denham T, Arroyo-Kalin M, Lucas L, Stevens CJ, Qin L, Allaby RG, and Purugganan MD. 2014. Convergent evolution and parallelism in plant domestication revealed by an expanding archaeological record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(17):6147-6152.Giannini TC, Lira-Saade R, Ayala R, Saraiva AM, and Alves-dos-Santos I. 2011. Ecological niche similarities of Peponapis bees and non-domesticated Cucurbita species. Ecological Modelling 222(12):2011-2018.Hart JP, Brumbach HJ, and Lusteck R. 2007. Extending the Phytolith Evidence for Early Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and Squash (Cucurbita sp.) in Central New York. American Antiquity 72(3):563-584.Kistler L, Newsom LA, Ryan TM, Clarke AC, Smith BD, and Perry GH. 2015. Gourds and squashes (Cucurbita spp.) adapted to megafaunal extinction and ecological anachronism through domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(49):15107-15112. Lira R, Eguiarte L, Montes S, Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Marà ­n PC-G, and Quesada M. 2016. Homo sapiens–Cucurbita interaction in Mesoamerica: Domestication, Dissemination, and Diversification. In: Lira R, Casas A, and Blancas J, editors. Ethnobotany of Mexico: Interactions of People and Plants in Mesoamerica. New York, NY: Springer New York. p 389-401.Là ³pez-Uribe MM, Cane JH, Minckley RL, and Danforth BN. 2016. Crop domestication facilitated rapid geographical expansion of a specialist pollinator, the squash bee Peponapis pruinosa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 283(1833).Patton PE, and Curran S. 2016. Archaic Period Domesticated Plants in the Mid-Ohio Valley: Archaeobotanical Remains from the County Home Site (33at40), Southeastern Ohio. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 41(2):127-158.Piperno DR. 2011. The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments. Current Anthropolog y 52(S4):S453-S470. Piperno DR. 2016. 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Lysander the Spartan General

Lysander the Spartan General Lysander was one of the Heraclidae at Sparta, but not a member of the royal families. Not much is known about his early life. His family was not wealthy, and we dont know how Lysander came to be entrusted with military commands. The Spartan Fleet in the Aegean When Alcibiades rejoined the Athenian side towards the end of the Peloponnesian War, Lysander was put in charge of the Spartan fleet in the Aegean, based at Ephesus (407). It was Lysanders decree that merchant shipping put into Ephesus and his foundation of shipyards there, that started its rise to prosperity. Persuading Cyrus to Help the Spartans Lysander persuaded Cyrus, the Great Kings son, to help the Spartans. When Lysander was leaving, Cyrus wanted to give him a present, and Lysander asked for Cyrus to fund an increase in the sailors pay, thus inducing sailors serving in the Athenian fleet to come over to the higher-paying Spartan fleet. While Alcibiades was away, his lieutenant Antiochus provoked Lysander into a sea battle which Lysander won. The Athenians thereupon removed Alcibiades from his command. Callicratides  as Lysanders Successor Lysander gained partisans for Sparta amongst the cities subject to Athens by promising to install decemvirates, and promoting the interests of potentially useful allies amongst their citizens. When the Spartans chose Callicratides as Lysanders successor, Lysander undermined his position by sending the funds for the increase in payback to Cyrus and taking the fleet back to the Peloponnese with him. The Battle of Arginusae (406) When Callicratides died after the battle of Arginusae (406), Spartas allies requested that Lysander is made admiral again. This was against Spartan law, so Aracus was made admiral, with Lysander as his deputy in name, but the actual commander. Ending the  Peloponnesian War It was Lysander who was responsible for the final defeat of the Athenian navy at Aegospotami, thus ending the Peloponnesian War. He joined the Spartan kings, Agis and Pausanias, in Attica. When Athens finally succumbed after the siege, Lysander installed a government of thirty, later remembered as the Thirty Tyrants (404). Unpopular Throughout Greece Lysanders promotion of his friends interests and vindictiveness against those who displeased him made him unpopular throughout Greece. When the Persian satrap Pharnabazus complained, the Spartan ephors recalled Lysander. There resulted in a power struggle within Sparta itself, with the kings favoring more democratic regimes in Greece in order to diminish Lysanders influence. King Agesilaus Instead of  Leontychides On the death of King Agis, Lysander was instrumental in Agis brother Agesilaus being made king instead of Leontychides, who was popularly supposed to be Alcibiades son rather than the kings. Lysander persuaded Agesilaus to mount an expedition to Asia to attack Persia, but when they arrived in the Greek Asian cities, Agesilaus grew jealous of the attention paid to Lysander and did everything he could to undermine Lysanders position. Finding himself unwanted there, Lysander returned to Sparta (396), where he may or may not have started a conspiracy to make the kingship elective amongst all Heraclidae or possibly all Spartiates, rather than confined to the royal families. War Between Sparta and Thebes   War broke out between Sparta and Thebes in 395, and Lysander was killed when his troops were surprised by a Theban ambush.